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Real world emissions and fuel consumptions
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Empa is involved in the German-Swiss-Austrian-Dutch-Swedish cooperation for the “Handbook Emission Factors for Road Transport” (HBEFA) and the former European ARTEMIS and PARTICULATES projects. All projects aim for accurate emission factors for different transport modes.
Passenger cars, light duty trucks and two wheelers are evaluated on chassis dynamometers. With the goal of giving representative emission values, many different aspects are taken into account: The vehicle sample chosen should represent the sales statistics considering engine-size distribution, manufacturer, chassis type, weight and engine and gearbox technology. Realistic driving patterns have to be used by taking in account various street types, traffic densities, driving stiles, etc. This is done at Empa by testing some 25 vehicles per year on a set of 34 real-world speed patterns. Additional aspects need to be examined as influence of weather, fuel type, load, auxiliaries (air-conditionning), slope, etc. Besides collecting the regulated pollutants CO (carbon monoxide), HC (hydrocarbons) and NOx (nitrogen oxides), a special focus is given on non regulated pollutants as benzene, ammonia, NO and NO2, particle number, toluene, and many others.
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Catalysts need a temperature of more than 300 °C to operate, thus to reduce exhaust pollutants. When starting vehicles with cold engines high amounts of pollutants are emitted and these emissions depend strongly on ambient temperature.
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Cold start extra HC emissions of different vehicle generations
A test series with several groups of cars of different emission categories consisting of 6 vehicle each, where all vehicles were tested with cold engine  in ambient temperatures between -20 and 23 °C, was run to model the cold start emissions.  A modern gasoline passenger car emits in one cold start at 23° the same amount of HC as during a warm ride of 72 km. Moreover, at -20 °C it emits 14 times more, thus as much as within 1000 km of warm driving.
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Cold start extra emissions of particulate mass of diesel vehicles
In a similar way the particle emissions rise for diesel vehicles when they start at lower temperatures.
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Ratio of HC-emissions of two wheelers and passenger cars
The emission regulations of motorbikes are much less stringent than those of passenger cars and the two wheelers were able to fulfil them with classical technologies as carburettors until model year 2006. The new Euro-3 legislation require 3-way catalytic converters, however. In different comparison studies the emissions of different generations of motorbikes are compared to those of modern passenger cars. For older 2-Wheelers the average HC emission in g/km is 23 higher for highway driving and 222 times higher for urban driving!
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Extra fuel consumption for air conditioning in urban driving
A high percentage of cars sold today are equipped with air conditionings (A/C). In a separate test series the impact of the A/C systems on fuel consumption and exhaust emissions was modelled. The six vehicles chosen were tested at four temperatures, with A/C of, A/C on and A/C on plus sunlight. By comparing the test values it results that up to 25% of the fuel is needed to keep the interior of the vehicle cool in urban driving.
Beside the regulated pollutants CO, HC, NOx and CO2, some special species as NO2, particle number, benzene or ammonia are analysed in the exhaust gas on a regular basis. It was shown, that in certain driving conditions the NO2 share in NOx is up to 70%. This is in contrast to the standard assumption that just 5% of NOx is NO2. This high ratio of NO2 creates new problems to fulfill air quality regulations and drives the atmospheric Ozone chemistry to higher Ozone levels.

 

Publications

Peter J. Sturm, Stefan Hausberger, Mario Keller, Michel André, Heinz Steven, Martin Rexeis , Erwin Cornelis, Ina de Vlieger, Martine van Poppel, Ulf Hammarström, Olavi Koskinen , Ian McCrae, Ivan Pollak, Iddo Riemersma, Leonid Tartakovski, Yoram Zwirin, Patrik Soltic, Martin Weilenmann, COST 346 - Energy and Fuel Consumption from Heavy Duty Vehicles, final report, TU-Graz, ISBN-10: 3-902465-48-4, October 2006, ISBN-13: 978-3-902465-48-1, pp 1 – 133, 2006

Robert Joumard, Juhani Laurikko, Savas Geivanidis, Zissis Samaras, Zoltán Oláh, Martin Weilenmann, Jean-Marc André, Erwin Cornelis, Michael Gribe, Stéphanie Lacour, Maria Vittoria Prati, Robin Vermeulen, Michael Zallinger, Accuracy of exhaust emissions measurements on vehicle bench, FISITA 2006, World Automotive Congress, 22-27 October, Yokohama, Japan - Paper reference: F2006P409, 2006

Claudio Rüdy, Martin Weilenmann (EMPA Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research), Katalysatoralterung an Rollern mit 50cm3 2-Takt-Motor, Empa report No. 203 270e, ISSN 1424-2532, 2006

Robert Alvarez, Peter Stettler, Martin Weilenmann, Anna-Maria Forss, Norbert Heeb, Christian Saxer (EMPA Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research), Emissionsverhalten von Personenwagen mit modernen Abgasnachbehandlungssystemen, Empa report No. 203 270d, ISSN 1424-2532, 2006

Ana-Marija Vasic, Martin Weilenmann, Norbert Heeb, Christian Saxer (EMPA Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research), Measurement Data Completion on Reference Year 2005 Gasoline Passenger Cars Euro-3, Empa report No. 203 270c, ISSN 1424-2532, 2006

Martin Weilenmann, Philippe Novak, The rising importance of two-wheelers emissions – a comparison to cars, Environment and Transport – Transport and Air Pollution conference, pp. 239 – 244, 12. – 14. June 2006, Reims, France, 2006

Päivii Aakko, Juhani Laurikko, Martin Weilenmann, Robert Joumard, Jean-Marc André, Maria Vittoria Prati, M.A. Costagliola, Tamash Merétei, Fabrice Cazier, A. Mercier, H Nouali, Laurent Paturel, E. Combet, O. Devos, J.C. Dechaux, I. Caplain, V. Nollet, Emission factors of unregulated atmospheric pollutants for passenger car – Task 320 of the EU ARTEMIS project, Environment and Transport – Transport and Air Pollution conference, pp. 231 - 238, 12. – 14. June 2006, Reims, France, 2006

Raymond Gense, Martin Weilenmann, Ian McCrae, Latest insight into direct NO2 emission from road transport, the current state of knowledge, Environment and Transport – Transport and Air Pollution conference, pp. 175 - 182, 12. – 14. June 2006, Reims, France, 2006

Robert Joumard, Juhani Laurikko, T. Le Han, Savas Geivanidis, Zissis Samaras, Z. Olàh, Philippe Devaux, Jean-Marc André, Erwin Cornelis,  Philippe Rouveirolle, Stefanie Lacour, Maria Vittoria Prati, Robin Vermeulen, Michael Zallinger, Accuracy of exhaust emissions measurements on vehicle bench, Environment and Transport – Transport and Air Pollution conference, pp. 119 - 126, 12. – 14. June 2006, Reims, France, 2006

Jean-Yves Favez, Martin Weilenmann, Cold start exhaust emissions as a function of various engine stop times and its evolution during the last 10 years, Environment and Transport – Transport and Air Pollution conference, pp. 111 - 118, 12. – 14. June 2006, Reims, France, 2006

Robert Alvarez, Martin Weilenmann, Philippe Novak, How to get realistic emission factors from vehicles with non continuous after treatment systems?, Environment and Transport – Transport and Air Pollution conference, pp. 95 - 102, 12. – 14. June 2006, Reims, France, 2006

Ana-Marija Vasic, Martin Weilenmann, A comparison of real-world emissions from actual two-wheelers and passenger cars, Environmental Science and Technology, Vol. 40, No 1, pp 149-154, 2005

Martin Weilenmann, Ana-Marija Vasic, Peter Stettler, Philippe Novak, Influence of mobile air conditioning on vehicle emissions and fuel consumption – a model approach for modern gasoline cars used in Europe, Environmental Science and Technology, Vol. 39, No 24, pp 9601-9610, 2005

Ajtay, D., Modal Pollutant Emissions Model of Diesel and Gasoline Engines; Doctoral thesis No 16302 of ETH Zürich, Examinors: Prof. Lino Guzzella, Prof Stefan Hausberger, Dr. Martin Weilenmann, Zürich Sept. 2005

Ajtay, D., Weilenmann, M., Application of vehicle instantaneous emission models at fleet level, Environmental Modelling and Software, presentation at Urban Air Quality Congress, 29. Mar – 1. Apr. 2005, Valencia, 2005

P. Aakko, J. Laurikko, M. Weilenmann, P. Mattrel, R. Joumard J.-M. André, M. V. Prati, M. A. Costagliola, T. Merétei, F. Cazier, A. Mercier, H. Nouali, L. Paturel, E. Combet, O. Devos, J. C. Dechaux, I. Caplain, V. Nollet, Emission factors of unregulated atmospheric pollutants for passenger cars, contribution to ARTEMIS “Assessment and reliability of transport emission models and inventory systems” a project of 5th EU-FP, VTT report PRO3/P3016/05, Helsinki, April 29, 2005

Delia Ajtay, Martin Weilenmann, Validation of instantaneous emission model for different loads, slopes and gear-shift strategies, Poster presentation at the 14th international symposium Transport and Air Pollution, 1. – 4. June 2005, Graz, Austria, 2005

Martin Weilenmann, Claudio Ruedy, Philippe Novak, Catalyst behaviour and emissions of 50 ccm scooters over the first 1000 km, poster presentation at the 14th international symposium Transport and Air Pollution 1. – 4. June 2005, Graz, Austria, 2005

Martin Weilenmann, Christian Saxer, Anna-Maria Forss, Norbert Heeb, Jan Stilli, Philippe Novak, Time-resolved raw gas measurements of NO and NOx for Diesel and gasoline vehicles, presentation at the 14th international symposium Transport and Air Pollution 1. – 4. June 2005, Graz, Austria, 2005

Martin Weilenmann, Ana-Marija Vasic, Peter Stettler, Fuel consumption and emissions linked to air condition activity of passenger cars – approach for a European model, presentation at the 14th international symposium Transport and Air Pollution 1. – 4. June 2005, Graz, Austria, 2005

Martin Weilenmann, Patrik Soltic, Christian Saxer, Anna Maria Forss (EMPA Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research), Regulated and Nonregulated Diesel and Gasoline Cold Start Emissions at different Temperatures, Athmospheric Environment, Vol. 39, No 13, pp 2433-2441, April 2005

Delia Ajtay, Martin Weilenmann, Patrik Soltic (EMPA Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research), Towards Accurate Instantaneous Emission Models, Athmospheric Environment, Vol. 39, No 13, pp 2443-2449, April 2005

Martin Weilenmann (EMPA Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research), Tracing of Road Traffic Emissions: Impact of Air Conditioning on Emissions of Gasoline Euro-3 Passenger Cars, Empa report No. 203 270b, ISSN 1424-2532, 2005

Martin Weilenmann, Patrik Soltic, Christian Saxer, Anna Maria Forss (EMPA Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research), Regulated and Nonregulated Diesel and Gasoline Cold Start Emissions at different Temperatures, Athmospheric Environment, Vol. 39, No 13, pp 2433-2441, 2005

Delia Ajtay , Martin Weilenmann (EMPA Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research), Static and Dynamic Instantaneous Emission Modelling, International Journal of Environment and Pollution, Vol. 22, No 3, pp 226-239 2004

Patrik Soltic, Martin Weilenmann, Philippe Novak (EMPA Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research), Real-World and Type-Approval Emission Evolution of Passenger Cars, International Journal of Environment and Pollution, Vol. 22, No 3, pp 259-274, 2004

Ana-Marija Vasic, Martin Weilenmann, Christian Saxer, Peter Mattrel (EMPA Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research), Nachführung der Emissionsgrundlagen Strassenverkehr: Zweiräder 02 – Standardmessungen, Winterkaltstart und Ozonbildungspotential, EMPA Untersuchungsbericht Nr. 202 114b, ISSN 1424-2532, 2004

Patrik Soltic, Martin Weilenmann (EMPA Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research), Influence of Electric Load on the Exhaust Gas Emissions of Passenger Cars, 11th international symposium Transport and Air Pollution 19-21 June 2002, Proceedings Volume II, pp 179-186, Graz University of Technology, 2002

Martin Weilenmann (EMPA Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research), Nachführung der Emissionsgrundlagen Strassenverkehr - Ergänzung der Messdaten auf das Bezugsjahr 2000, Teilbericht: Kaltstartemissionen, EMPA Untersuchungsbericht Nr. 201 209f, ISSN 1424-2532, 2002

Martin Weilenmann (EMPA Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research), Nachführung der Emissionsgrundlagen Strassenverkehr - Ergänzung der Messdaten auf das Bezugsjahr 2000, Teilbericht: Emissionen und Verbrauch bei Eco Drive, EMPA Untersuchungsbericht Nr. 201 209e, ISSN 1424-2532, 2002

Martin Weilenmann, Anna Maria Forss, Norbert Heeb (EMPA Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research), Nachführung der Emissionsgrundlagen Strassenverkehr - Ergänzung der Messdaten auf das Bezugsjahr 2000, Teilbericht: "Winter Cold start of Two-Wheelers", EMPA Untersuchungsbericht Nr. 202 114a, ISSN 1424-2532, 2002

Martin Weilenmann (EMPA Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research), Nachführung der Emissionsgrundlagen Strassenverkehr - Ergänzung der Messdaten auf das Bezugsjahr 2000, Benzin: Personen- und Lieferwagen Teilbericht: Emissionen in Abhängigkeit der Meereshöhe, EMPA Untersuchungsbericht Nr. 202 209a, ISSN 1424-2532, 2002

Martin Weilenmann (EMPA Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research), Nachführung der Emissionsgrundlagen Strassenverkehr - Ergänzung der Messdaten auf das Bezugsjahr 2000, Benzin: Personen- und Lieferwagen Teilbericht: Kaltstartemissionen, EMPA Untersuchungsbericht Nr. 202 209f, ISSN 1424-2532, 2001.

Martin Weilenmann, Christian Bach and Claudio Rüdy (EMPA Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research), Aspects of Instantaneous Emission Measurement, International Journal of Vehicle Design , Vol. 27, No 1-4, 2001, pp. 94-104, Inderscience Enterprises Ltd., Great Britain.

Martin Weilenmann  (EMPA Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research), Nachführung der Emissionsgrundlagen Strassenverkehr - Ergänzung der Messdaten auf das Bezugsjahr 2000, Dieselfahrzeuge: Personen- und Lieferwagen, EMPA Untersuchungsbericht Nr. 200 050, ISSN 1424-2532, 2000

 

 

Contact

Dr. Martin Weilenmann, Phone +41-(0)58-765 4679, E-Mail: martin.weilenmann@empa.ch

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